The Old Ottoman Capital Bursa and its Riches

The Old Ottoman Capital Bursa and its Riches. Once across the Dardanelles, before the city came into view, the traveller would have seen the mountains, called by the Turks Uludağ Mountains. They represent the highest mass in northeastern Anatolia, which according to legend was the home of the Gods of Antiquity. In order to differ from the Olympus in the Greek lands, it was called Mysian Olympus. 1
The Bithynian King Prusias founded Bursa and offered refuge to Hannibal after the defeat of Antiochus at Magnesia in 190 B.C. and the city was named after him – Prusa. 1 For many years, it was the seat of the Bithynian kings. Later on it fell in the hands of the Romans, following King Nicodemes IV‘s bequest. 6 No longer the capital of Bithynia, nevertheless Bursa’s warm water baths ensured the city’s continuing importance.
After the division of the Roman Empire, Bursa stayed under the rule of Byzantium and flourished as a town, benefiting from its waters, climate and its position – on the main east/west trading routes. In the 10th century, Bursa was captured by Saif-al-Dawla of Aleppo after a ten years siege, but later, the Byzantines took it back. Then in 1075, it fell in the hands of the Seljuk Turks. After only 22 years, soldiers from the First Crusade took it, but the city was retaken by Byzantium later.
Because of the growing numbers of Turkish tribes arriving in Anatolia during the 11 and 12th centuries, small beyliks developed, ruled by individual warlords. As we have seen, one of these was Ertugrul Bey, who founded a small beylik near Bursa. In 1317, his son Osman attacked the territory around Bursa.
Osman Bey’s opponent was the Byzantine Governor of Bursa Atranos. Atranos had sought help from the Governors of Kestel and Kite against the Ottomans. However, Osman destroyed their united army at Koyunhisar in 1306. Still, Bursa was not taken. Osman decided to besiege the city and started preparations. In the meanwhile, Osman’s health deteriorated and his son Orhan was left in charge of the siege. This lasted nearly 10 years. 8 Bursa was starved into surrender, which took place on the 6 of April 1326.2
Details about the taking of Bursa have been left in the writings of the 15th century Ottoman chronicler Aşikpaşazade, whose information was obtained from an original 14th century narrative.
The chief minister/administrator of the Byzantine governor of Bursa Atranos, used his commander, called Saroz, to negotiate the surrender of Bursa to the Turks. The name of the Turkish representative in these negotiations was Köse Mihal, a newly converted Christian, and an experienced army commander, fighting alongside Osman and his son Orhan.16 Atranos used Saroz to hand over gifts of considerable treasures and gold and after consulting with his father, Orhan allowed the Governor and his family to leave the city. They made their way to Gemlike on the coast and then sailed to Constantinople.7 However, Saroz decided to remain with the Ottomans and to convert – he was renamed to Evrenos Bay and was the ancestor of a famous family of warriors, which became a “noble” family of the Ottomans. 16 The second variant of this story, as described by the Byzantines, understandably omits the bribe and so is able to portray Atranos’ journey to Constantinople as a heroic escape.
After the successful completion of the siege, Orhan made Bursa his capital. 4 The chronicler Seddadin tells us, that after a skirmish with Byzantine troops, some of the captured soldiers were taken to see the sultan. When Murad understood that one of them was an architect, he was quickly released and sent to work on the new building projects in the city. 8 By then, the city was beginning to attract the best poets, architects, artists, soldiers, historians and religious thinkers of the Middle East.
During Orhan’s rule a palace was built in Bursa, but unfortunately, little information of this building is available – not even the location of its site. Sources suggest that the palace was in use by 1402 – the time when Timur’s army sacked the city of Bursa. Although we do not know whether it was completely demolished or only partially and then restored, it appears that, some members of the sultan’s family– his grandchildren, still lived there after those events. 17
The new occupiers accepted the cultural ambiance of the city and it brought them closer to the Byzantine culture. This was eased by the facts that the Ottoman subjects were a mixture of Turks, Christians, Armenians, and Jews, who had existed together in those lands for a long of time. 16
The warm mineral waters, which sprang everywhere in the city, ensured its beauty (flowers and trees grew easily). Good crop production meant that citizens were well fed and healthy. The climate and water made Bursa a paradise for agriculture – fruit grew (including the mulberry, so necessary for silk production), vines; the luscious grass ensured the availability of dairy products. Bursa’s fame as a centre for the production of silk was well established.
New buildings, bridges and roads were being built and trading and supply links Bursa were re-established with the Anatolian hinterland. Flourishing markets, offered goods from Russia, the Balkans, the Arab world and China. The principal trade from east and west included high quality clothes from Flanders and Florence along with silk from China and Persia. The north-south trade brought spices and sugar from the south; slaves and furs from the Khanate of the Golden Horde. With the continual enlarging and strengthening of the Ottoman Empire, it was much more secure for traders from Arabia and Iran to come to Bursa markets and meet there traders from Venice, Genoa.14 Coins were minted there.
Of all the commodities traded through Bursa over the centuries, silk was perhaps the most important.
Silkworms, smuggled out of China were established on the Mediterranean coast of the Byzantine Empire in 552 A.D. and silk production quickly spread in the area. Sericulture (the producing of silk) became one of the important sources of income for the Byzantine Empire.1 But, trade in silk pre-dated the silk production process.
After the Ottomans acquired large parts of Anatolia, they found themselves strategically located on the path of the east-west silk route connecting Asia and Europe. Raw silk, transported by caravans from Iran passed through Anatolia as far as Bursa, where European traders, mostly Italian, purchased the goods. 3 But some of it was reserved for domestic use – this encouraged its use for clothes and furnishings.
It is not clear exactly when silk was first produced in Bursa, but it is obvious, that trade in it had been going on for some time. Although silk was definitely produced in Bursa in the second half of the sixteenth century, its output was not sufficient to satisfy the demand, and the Ottoman world continued to rely on imported raw silk for both its domestic needs and resale to European traders.
Sericulture and trade in silk provided substantial revenues to the state through customs, taxes and brokerage fees levied from the Iranian, Italian and other foreign merchants; in addition, it also developed the Ottoman’s own textile industry. 3 The wealth derived from this, supported not only the newly established bureaucracy, but also the development of religious, educational and civil institutions. 2
Bursa’s hot mineral waters were another blessing, which from days immemorial had benefited people living there. The Roman Governor Pliny the Younger mentioned in a letter the restoration of the mineral baths in Bursa as an important event. In Byzantine times, the Pythia hot springs became famous. They were located just outside Bursa. They were impregnated with sulphur and iron and their sources originated in the lower slopes of Mount Olympus. The temperature of some springs can rise to 195 degrees Fahrenheit and some springs need to be diluted with cold water. 4
Justinian was believed to have built a large public bathhouse and a palace in Pythia.1, 4 Many Byzantine Emperors and Empresses have frequented the Bursa hot mineral water baths. One of the important patrons of the baths was Empress Theodora, Justinian’s wife, who came here in 525 with 4000 attendants in golden litters. 4 The Byzantines thought that all sorts of ailments were “cured” there – from rheumatism to kidney malfunctions and gout!
With Ottoman occupation, the bath complex was renamed Çekirge – meaning “locust”. It became the location also for the mausoleum for Murad I.
Bursa, already a large and well-developed Byzantine city, was the first place, where it was obvious that the Ottoman Sultans and their architects were beginning to “think big”.
They began not only to re-develop the already existing Byzantine buildings for Muslim use, but they started to combine mosque building with religious and social facilities, which became the central point of town life. The scale of these enhanced the permanency of the Sultans and demonstrated their commitment to the Islamic religion, the well-being of their people and their reputation.15 The culture of cleansing one’s body with the hot waters, already in place in Bursa, matched well the teachings on the Koran, and confirmed the appreciation of cleanliness, leading to better health.
When the Ottoman Sultans moved the capital to Edirne and later to Istanbul, they still visited Bursa to rest, treat ailments and get away from the increasingly onerous duties of state and even the fixed expectations of visits to the harem. All this time the Ottomans had been further assimilating the culture and traditions of the Byzantine Empire. With the taking of Constantinople in 1453, they were immersed completely – adopting all the trappings – “the secluded Palace, the veil, the harem, eunuchs, ceremonial clothes, the weekly visit to the mosque, leaden roofs, red ink for state documents and a hundred other things – the transformation was complete.” – stated Penzer.4 To what extend this was so, we will debate in the following chapter!
Establishing themselves in Bursa was one of the first major steps in this transition from beylik to Empire. And although Murad I moved the capital to Edirne in 1361, Bursa still retained premier position of importance as the Holy City of the Empire and the remains of all the early Sultans would be placed there – Osman and Orhan already being “in residence”.
During its time as a capital, Bursa attracted a large number of theologians who became the proud nucleus of the Ulema – the Muslim religious establishment and a major source of education.5
So, by the end of the 14th century, Bursa would not be the official capital, but would be a beautiful and prosperous city, decorated by many municipal buildings, built by the Ottomans, as well as Byzantine buildings, restored and/or re-used (changed to mosques, burial mausoleums, baths, etc). 13
All aspects of the textile trade developed further – the merchants had a dedicated market place to sell and store their goods. Murad ordered the building of a large mosque and a surrounding complex of a school, baths (extension of the existing ones), mausoleum, etc with an original design and a palatial appearance in Çekirge (near Bursa). 13 Later on his son Beyazid also built mosques and inns on the roads, approaching Bursa.
When in 1362 Adrianople surrendered, Murad announced in 1368 that it would be the new capital of the Ottoman Empire. After a prophetic dream, he commissioned the building of a new palace.9
According to historical writers, Murad moved with his court and the government machine all the time from one place to another, just like his father did. It is probably a bit misleading to state that Edirne was the capital at the time – the capital was located, as J. V. A. Fines Jr comments “wherever the Sultan happened to be.” In addition, as most of his military campaigns happened to be in Europe, at the time, he passed through Edirne rather more often, as it was on the way there. 10 This was supported by the large number of documents, issued from there.
As this was the starting base for his military campaigns on the Balkans, it is assumed that his wives and children did not live there – Bursa would have been much more comfortable place for the family to reside. This meant that The Bulgarian Princess Tamara, Murad’s fourth wife, would have arrived here some time between 1371 and 1376. At the same time, shortly before or shortly after her, the 3 young daughters of Constantine Dragash would have also arrived there – one as a wife to Murad (called Frulane 12) and the other two – wives to his young sons – Beyazid married Olga and Yacub married Anita. 11 Their company might have been a comfort to Tamara.
In succeeding times, several earthquakes damaged the buildings, built by the first sultans – the worse was the one of 1855. Some of the monuments survived, others were lovingly reconstructed by order of an “enlightened Governor” of Bursa, Vefuk Pasha. A whole plethora of sultans’ graves can be seen there today, surrounded by their children and wives. Wives, who remained Christian – like Theodora, Tamara, Olga and others would have been buried in close proximity, but outside the tomb of their husband. 17

Bursa and its Riches – Sources

  1. Pekin Ersu, Rifat Samih: Green Bursa, Galeri Minyatür – Tunçay Yurtsever, Istanbul, 2004,p 20–130
  2. Lindner Rudi Paul: Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia, Indiana University Uralic and Atlantic Series, Volume 44, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, Indiana University, Bloomington, 1983, p 28 -30
  3. https://www.textileasart.com/weaving.htm#turkish
  4. Penzer, The Harēm, Penzer N. M.: The Harēm – Ann Account of the Institution as it Existed in the Palace of the Turkish Sultans with the History of the Grand Sergalio from its Foundation to the Present Time, George G. Harrap @ Co Ltd, London, Bombay, Sidney, 1936, p 10-230
  5. Kinross Lord: The Ottoman Centuries – The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, Jonathan Cape, London, 1977, p15-43
  6. https://goturkey.turizm.gov.tr/BelgeGoster.aspx?14A16A
  7. Историите но Ходжа Седадин, превод Калицин, 150–235
  8. Yldirim Şahin, Karakaş Gűnay: Edirne Műseleri ve Őren Yerleri, T.C. Kűltűr ve Turizm Balkanliġi, Y K Y, Istanbul, 2006, p 83-89
  9. Fine John V.A. Jr.: The Late Medieval Balkans, Ann Arbour; The University of Michigan Press, 1996,p 290–297
  10. Alderson A.D.: The Structure of the Ottoman Dynasty, Greenwood Press Publishers, Westport, Connecticut, 1956, p 166-167
  11. https://www.osmanli700.gen.tr/english/miscel/wife.html
  12. https://www.hotelmavideniz.com/sayfalar/ottoman.html
  13. Inalcik Halil: The Ottoman Empire – The Classical Age – 1300 – 1600, Phoenix, London, 1973, p 9–133
  14. Islam Art and Architecture, Edited by Markus Hattstein and Peter Delius, Könemann, 2004, 536–546
  15. Lowery Heath W: The Nature of the Early Ottoman State, State University of New York Press, Albany, 2003, p 45–95
  16. Davey Richard: The Sultan and his Subjects, Chatto & Windus, London, 1907, p 405-417
  17. Imber Colin: The Ottoman Empire 1300 – 1650 – the Structure of Power, Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2002, p 143-176
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